Great Divergence
According to wikipedia, the Great Divergence is "the socioeconomic shift in which the Western world (i.e. Western Europe and the parts of the New World where its people became the dominant populations) overcame pre-modern growth constraints and emerged during the 19th century as the most powerful and wealthy world civilizations, eclipsing previously dominant or comparable civilizations from the Middle East and Asia such as Qing China, Mughal India, the Ottoman Empire, Safavid Iran, and Tokugawa Japan, among others."
Why Western Europe? Why did capitalism emerge in Europe first and not elsewhere? And when? Why did Europe conquer, settle, and subjugate the world and not the other way around? These are the defining question for the past 25 years of economic history. The debate has done much to push the field of economic history to adopt a more global perspective. It's also encouraged the construction of world-spanning databases (see below). There's a number of ways you could organize the literature: California school vs the European exceptionalist tradition, longer vs shorter runway, institutionalist vs ecological causes, trade vs slavery, etc. The literature on this is vast and every-growing, so I'll just give you the greatest hits in each cluster as I see them, and you can work your way up to the present.
Some books to start you off:
Allen, Robert C. 2009. The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Allen, Robert C. 2011. Global Economic History: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford.
Pomeranz, Kenneth. 2021. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton University Press.
Landes, David S. 2015. Wealth and Poverty of Nations. Hachette UK.
Koyama, Mark, and Jared Rubin. 2022. How the World Became Rich: The Historical Origins of Economic Growth. John Wiley & Sons.
Geography and Environment
Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs, and Steel has to be the most famous (and most controversial) of the geographic determinist-type explanations, painting across the widest geographic canvas: Eurasia to the Americas, Austronesia, and Africa. The book is a useful antagonist to have, especially since it's so popular. His argument is essentially that Eurasia enjoyed an earlier diffusion of crop-animal packages that allowed people there to build cities, immunity, and social complexity. He's been ruthlessly criticized (see McAnany and Yoffee 2009 for one generation of critiques) and also vehemently defended (see Kedrosky's 15,000 word substack). Ian Morris' Geography is Destiny and Why the West Rules—For Now go even further in the determinist direction.
Diamond, Jared M. 1997. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W. W. Norton & Company.
McAnany, Patricia A., and Norman Yoffee. 2009. Questioning Collapse: Human Resilience, Ecological Vulnerability, and the Aftermath of Empire. Cambridge University Press.
Hibbs, Douglas A., and Ola Olsson. 2004. “Geography, Biogeography, and Why Some Countries Are Rich and Others Are Poor.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101(10): 3715–20.
Easterly, William, and Ross Levine. 2003. “Tropics, Germs, and Crops: How Endowments Influence Economic Development.” Journal of Monetary Economics 50(1): 3–39.
Kedrosky, Davis. 2022. “Jared Diamond: A Reply to His Critics.” Substack.
For a more recent take on this literature, Fernández-Villaverde and his coauthors have a simulation-based paper which I like that examines the 'fractured lands' hypothesis more in depth, although the outcome of interest is state formation, not the general 'Rise of the West' or industrial revolution. Andersen and coauthors (2016) and Dell and coauthors (2014) re-examine climate transitions.
Fernández-Villaverde, Jesús, Mark Koyama, Youhong Lin, and Tuan-Hwee Sng. 2023. “The Fractured-Land Hypothesis.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 138(2): 1173–1231.
Andersen, Thomas Barnebeck, Carl-Johan Dalgaard, and Pablo Selaya. 2016. “Climate and the Emergence of Global Income Differences.” The Review of Economic Studies 83(4): 1334–63.
Dell, Melissa, Benjamin F. Jones, and Benjamin A. Olken. 2014. “What Do We Learn from the Weather? The New Climate-Economy Literature.” Journal of Economic literature 52(3): 740–98.
Nunn, Nathan, and Diego Puga. 2012. “Ruggedness: The Blessing of Bad Geography in Africa.” Review of Economics and Statistics 94(1): 20–36.
Alfred Crosby's older classics The Columbian Exchange (1972) and Ecological Imperialism (1986) are generally better received by scholars than Jared Diamond's. Crosby says the rise of the West is not just a human phenomenon; it's a broader biological invasion, and we need to understand nature as an agent and cause of historical change. I honestly prefer Crosby, in part because he doesn't lapse into shoddy racialist language like Jared Diamond.
Crosby, Alfred W. 2004. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge University Press.
Crosby, Alfed W. 2003. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, 30th Anniversary Edition. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
Note that the 'virgin soil epidemics' idea pushed by Crosby has come under attack by disease historians, who have questioned how important it was compared to other colonial factors.
Cameron, Catherine M., Paul Kelton, and Alan C. Swedlund, eds. 2015. Beyond Germs: Native Depopulation in North America. Reprint edition. University of Arizona Press.
Harper, Kyle. 2023. Plagues Upon the Earth: Disease and the Course of Human History. Princeton University Press.
Narrowing down on why Western Europe within Eurasia (not China, India or Middle East), coal deposits such as those in Newcastle and Ruhr are the most traditional ecological-geographical explanation. Wrigley is a famous proponent of this as well as Pomeranz. Wrigley in some of his work also says that Northwest Europe had unusually fertile agriculture and very early, by global standards.
Pomeranz, Kenneth. 2021. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton University Press.
Wrigley, E. A. 2016. The Path to Sustained Growth: England’s Transition from an Organic Economy to an Industrial Revolution. Cambridge University Press.
Mitterauer, Michael. 2010. Why Europe?: The Medieval Origins of Its Special Path. University of Chicago Press.
Comparing to the Middle East, Issawi and Christensen cited below have also made geographic-deterministy arguments, as did Marshall Hodgson in his Venture of Islam series. Note, this style of ecological arguments often surrounds particular climatic events, rather than persistent geographic conditions highlighted above. Campbell is a good introduction into the medieval climate anomaly literature.
Issawi, Charles. 1991. “Technology, Energy, and Civilization: Some Historical Observations.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 23(3): 281–89.
Christensen, Peter. 1993. The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500. Museum Tusculanum Press.
Bulliet, Richard W. 2009. Cotton, Climate, and Camels in Early Islamic Iran: A Moment in World History. Columbia University Press.
Xoplaki, Elena, Jürg Luterbacher, Sebastian Wagner, Eduardo Zorita, Dominik Fleitmann, Johannes Preiser-Kapeller, Abigail M. Sargent, et al. 2018. “Modelling Climate and Societal Resilience in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Last Millennium.” Human Ecology 46(3): 363–79.
Ellenblum, Ronnie. 2012. The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950–1072. Cambridge University Press.
Campbell, B. M. S. 2016. The Great Transition. Cambridge University Press.
White, Sam. 2011. The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press.
Institutionalists
The institutionalists say that the key to success was building good institutions: secure property rights, the rule of law, the rise of a strong fiscal state which built infrastructure, expanded markets, and supported merchants, etc. These accounts tend to have a Smithian bent, talking about good institutions in the sense of facilitating the division of labour, innovation, and trade expansion. Some good ones to know:
Classics
North, Douglass C. 1973. The Rise of the Western World: A New Economic History. Cambridge University Press.
North, Douglass C. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press.
Acemoglu, D. 2005. “Institutions as the Fundamental Cause of Long-Run Growth.” Handbook of Economics Growth.
Mokyr, Joel. 2005. “The Intellectual Origins of Modern Economic Growth.” The Journal of Economic History 65(2): 285–351.
Others
Greif, Avner. 2006. Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade. Cambridge University Press.
O’Brien, Patrick K. 1988. “The Political Economy of British Taxation, 1660-1815.” Economic history review: 1–32.
O’Brien, Patrick, and Caglar Keyder. 2012. Economic Growth in Britain and France 1780-1914 (Routledge Revivals): Two Paths to the Twentieth Century. Routledge.
Blaydes, Lisa, and Eric Chaney. 2013. “The Feudal Revolution and Europe’s Rise: Political Divergence of the Christian West and the Muslim World before 1500 CE.” American Political Science Review 107(1): 16–34.
Yun-Casalilla, Bartolomé, and Patrick K. O’Brien. 2012. The Rise of Fiscal States: A Global History, 1500-1914. Cambridge University Press.
Kuran, Timur. 2012. The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East. Princeton University Press.
Rubin, Jared T. 2017. Rulers, Religion, and Riches: Why the West Got Rich and the Middle East Did Not. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Cox, Gary W. 2017. “Political Institutions, Economic Liberty, and the Great Divergence.” The Journal of Economic History 77(3): 724–55.
Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson. 2001. “The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation.” American economic review 91(5): 1369–1401.
Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson. 2013. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. Crown Currency.
Williamson, Jeffrey G. 2013. Trade and Poverty: When the Third World Fell Behind. MIT Press.
Mokyr, Joel. 2011. The Gifts of Athena: Historical Origins of the Knowledge Economy. Princeton University Press.
The bellicists tend to talk about 'good institutions' but in terms of war and bureaucracy. Their stories are generally much more about the process by which European political formations acquired the state capacity to mobilize resources to secure a monopoly on large-scale coercion. In a memorable quote by Samuel Huntington, "The West won the world not by the superiority of its ideas or values or religion but rather by its superiority in applying organized violence."
Tilly, Charles. 1993. Coercion, Capital and European States: AD 990 - 1992. Wiley.
Hoffman, Philip T. 2015. Why Did Europe Conquer the World?: Princeton University Press. Princeton University Press.
Scheidel, Walter. 2021. Escape from Rome: The Failure of Empire and the Road to Prosperity. Princeton University Press. [Scheidel isn't really about the Great Divergence per-se but examines the break-up of agrarian empires as a necessary prelude for the kind of prosperity we enjoy today.]
Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 1977. The Venture of Islam, Volume 3: The Gunpower Empires and Modern Times. University of Chicago Press.
Brenner Debate
The 'Brenner debate' was an academic debate that unfolded in the pages of Past and Present in the 1970s about the origins of capitalism. Brenner said it had to do with weak peasant farmers, strong capitalist farmers leading to enclosure and farming innovations (in England in the 16th century), and then rapid agricultural growth. His critics, including M. M. Postan and ELR Ladurie, focus on Malthusian population trends. Institutionalists later, like North and Thomas put the emphasis not on local class relations (a Marxian idea) but trade and property relations (a Smithian idea). The debate is basically dead but remains important historiographical event that gets mentioned sometimes. Conveniently, the original theses and substantive responses are collected in Aston and Philpin's book.
Aston, Trevor Henry, and C. H. E. Philpin. 1987. The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe. Cambridge University Press.
Bois, Guy. 1978. “Against the Neo-Malthusian Orthodoxy.” Past & Present (79): 60–69.
Brenner, Robert. 1976. “Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe.” Past & Present 70(1): 30–75.
Brenner, Robert. 1982. “The Agrarian Roots of European Capitalism.” Past & Present (97): 16–113.
Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy. 1978. “A Reply to Professor Brenner.” Past & Present (79): 55–59.
Postan, Michael M., and John Hatcher. 1978. “Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-industrial Europe: Population and Class Relations in Feudal Society.” Past & Present 78(1): 24–37.
Reviews:
Wood, Ellen Meiksins. 1996. “Capitalism, Merchants and Bourgeois Revolution: Reflections on the Brenner Debate and Its Sequel.” International Review of Social History 41(2): 209–32.
Little, Dan. 2010. “Understanding Society: The Brenner Debate Revisited.” Understanding Society Blog.
Plagues
A lot of people seem really fond of incorporating plagues into the story of the divergence. You can read more about here:
Pamuk, Şevket. 2007. “The Black Death and the Origins of the ‘Great Divergence’ across Europe, 1300–1600.” European Review of Economic History 11(3): 289–317.
Campbell, B. M. S. 2016. The Great Transition. Cambridge University Press.
Borsch, Stuart J. 2005. The Black Death in Egypt and England: A Comparative Study. University of Texas Press.
Herlihy, David. 1997. The Black Death and the Transformation of the West. Harvard University Press.
Belich, James. 2022. The World the Plague Made: The Black Death and the Rise of Europe. Princeton University Press.
Dols, Michael Walters. 2019. 5352 The Black Death in the Middle East. Princeton University Press.
Jedwab, Remi, Noel D. Johnson, and Mark Koyama. 2022. “The Economic Impact of the Black Death.” Journal of Economic Literature 60(1): 132–78.
Izdebski, A., P. Guzowski, R. Poniat, L. Masci, J. Palli, C. Vignola, M. Bauch, et al. 2022. “Palaeoecological Data Indicates Land-Use Changes across Europe Linked to Spatial Heterogeneity in Mortality during the Black Death Pandemic.” Nature Ecology & Evolution 6(3): 297–306.
Pamuk, Şevket, and Maya Shatzmiller. 2014. “Plagues, Wages, and Economic Change in the Islamic Middle East, 700–1500.” The Journal of Economic History 74(1): 196–229.
Findlay, Ronald, and Mats Lundahl. 2017. “Demographic Shocks and the Factor Proportions Model: From the Plague of Justinian to the Black Death.” In The Economics of the Frontier, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 125–72.
Culture
'Deeper Roots' Cultural Explanations for Great Divergence.
Zanden, Jan Luiten van, Tine De Moor, and Sarah Carmichael. 2019. Capital Women: The European Marriage Pattern, Female Empowerment and Economic Development in Western Europe 1300-1800. Oxford University Press.
Henrich, Joseph. 2020. The WEIRDest People in the World: How the West Became Psychologically Peculiar and Particularly Prosperous. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. [see other works by Henrich, too]
Clark, Gregory. 2008. A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World. Princeton University Press.
Newson, Lesley, and Peter J. Richerson. 2009. “Why Do People Become Modern? A Darwinian Explanation.” Population and Development Review 35(1): 117–58.
Guiso, Luigi, Paola Sapienza, and Luigi Zingales. 2006. “Does Culture Affect Economic Outcomes?” Journal of Economic perspectives 20(2): 23–48.
California School
There's always some dimension reduction when you group diverse authors together, so take this label with a grain of salt. But the 'California School' generally refers to an interpretation of early modern economic history that positions the rise of the West as a relatively recent and abrupt phenomenon. They are called ‘the California School’ because most of them worked at universities in California. Among these, you can count Kenneth Pomeranz, Roy Bin Wong, Jack Goldstone, James Lee, Feng Wang, Dennis Flynn and Arturo Giráldez, Robert Marks, and the late Andre Gunder Frank. They are called ‘the California School’ because most of them worked at universities in California, and their foil are those who see 'deep roots' in the rise of the West. For instance, classical Marxists, like Marx, concluded that the non-Western world lacked the internal dynamics to manage a transition to capitalism on its own (see Avineri 1969 and Krader 1975 below). Other foils are the new institutionalists, who identify the ‘rise of the West’ with ‘the rise of the market’ (see above), or who detect with deeper, pre-19th century roots in things like the European marriage pattern (van Zanden, Moor, and Carmichael 2019) or Weberian-style rationalization and bureaucracy (Schluchter 1985) or other kinds of culture (Clark 2008; Henrich 2020). Most of the California School try to decenter Europe and give China's history central importance.
The classics:
Pomeranz, Kenneth. 2021. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton University Press. [the most famous one]
Goldstone, Jack A. 2002. “Efflorescences and Economic Growth in World History: Rethinking the" Rise of the West" and the Industrial Revolution.” Journal of world history: 323–89.
Wong, Roy Bin. 1997. China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience. Cornell University Press.
Frank, Andre Gunder. 1998. ReORIENT: Global Economy in the Asian Age. University of California Press.
Goldstone, Jack A. 2009. Why Europe? The Rise of the West in World History 1500-1850. McGraw-Hill Education.
Goody, Jack. 2013. Capitalism and Modernity: The Great Debate. John Wiley & Sons.
Lee, James Z., and Wang Feng. 2001. One Quarter of Humanity: Malthusian Mythology and Chinese Realities, 1700–2000. Harvard University Press.
Marks, Robert B. 2006. The Origins of the Modern World: A Global and Ecological Narrative from the Fifteenth to the Twenty-First Century. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Hobson, John M. 2004. The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation. Cambridge University Press.
Others
Tsuya, Noriko O., Feng Wang, George Alter, and James Z. Lee. 2010. Prudence and Pressure: Reproduction and Human Agency in Europe and Asia, 1700-1900. MIT Press.
Pomeranz, Kenneth. 2011. “Ten Years After: Responses and Reconsiderations.” Historically Speaking 12(4): 20–25.
Pomeranz, Kenneth. 2023. The Making of a Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937. University of California Press.
Flynn, Dennis O., and Arturo Giráldez. 2000. “Money and Growth without Development: The Case of Ming China.” Asia Pacific Dynamism: 1550–2000.
Duchesne, Ricardo. 2004. “On the Rise of the West: Researching Kenneth Pomeranz’s Great Divergence.” Review of Radical Political Economics 36(1): 52–81.
Flynn, Dennis O., and Arturo Giráldez. 2004. “Path Dependence, Time Lags and the Birth of Globalisation: A Critique of O’Rourke and Williamson.” European Review of Economic History 8(1): 81–108.
Frank, Andre Gunder, and Robert A. Denemark. 2015. Reorienting the 19th Century: Global Economy in the Continuing Asian Age. Routledge.
Goody, Jack. 2006. The Theft of History. Cambridge University Press.
O’rourke, Kevin H., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. 2002. “When Did Globalisation Begin?” European review of economic history 6(1): 23–50.
Wang, Feng. 2024. China’s Age of Abundance: Origins, Ascendance, and Aftermath. Cambridge University Press.
De Vries, Jan. 2011. “Industrious Peasants in East and West: Markets, Technology, and Family Structure in Japanese and Western European Agriculture.” Australian Economic History Review 51(2): 107–19.
Critiques:
Bryant, Joseph. 2008. “A New Sociology for a New History? Further Critical Thoughts on the Eurasian Similarity and Great Divergence Theses.” Canadian Journal of Sociology 33(1).
Yong Xue. 2007. “A ‘Fertilizer Revolution’?: A Critical Response to Pomeranz’s Theory of ‘Geographic Luck.’” Modern China 33(2): 195–229.
Vries, Peer. 2015. State, Economy and the Great Divergence: Great Britain and China, 1680s-1850s. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Vries, P. H. H. 2001. “Are Coal and Colonies Really Crucial? Kenneth Pomeranz and the Great Divergence” ed. Kenneth Pomeranz. Journal of World History 12(2): 407–46.
Vries, Peer. 2010. “The California School and Beyond: How to Study the Great Divergence?” History Compass 8(7): 730–51.
Datasets
One of the benefits of the Great Divergence debates is that it has encouraged people to build these huge datasets on historical GDP, real wages, skill premiums, government revenues, terms-of-trade, human capital, and land use. Many of these you can download from the Madison Project or Clio-Infra. Here are the big ones:
Allen, Robert C., Jean‐Pascal Bassino, Debin Ma, Christine Moll‐Murata, and Jan Luiten Van Zanden. 2011. “Wages, Prices, and Living Standards in China, 1738–1925: In Comparison with Europe, Japan, and India.” The Economic History Review 64(s1): 8–38.
Bolt, Jutta, and Jan Luiten Van Zanden. 2024. “Maddison Project Database 2023.”
Broadberry, Stephen, Bruce M. S. Campbell, and Alexander Klein. 2015. British Economic Growth, 1270–1870. Cambridge University Press.
Joerg, Baten, Mira d’Ercole Marco, and Rijpma Auke. 2014. How Was Life? Global Well-Being since 1820: Global Well-Being since 1820. OECD publishing.
Maddison, Angus. 2003. Development Centre Studies the World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics. OECD publishing.
Van Zanden, Jan Luiten. 2009. 1 The Long Road to the Industrial Revolution: The European Economy in a Global Perspective, 1000-1800. Brill.
Williamson, Jeffrey G. 2012. “Commodity Prices over Two Centuries: Trends, Volatility, and Impact.” Annual Review of Resource Economics 4(1): 185–206.
Williamson, Jeffrey G. 2013. Trade and Poverty: When the Third World Fell Behind. MIT press.
Then are the debates about whether these data collection and estimation efforts are methodologically sound:
Deng, Kent, and Patrick O’Brien. 2017. “Why Maddison Was Wrong.” World Economics 18(2): 21–42.
van Zanden, Jan Luiten, and Debin Ma. 2017. “What Makes Maddison Right.” World Economics 18(3): 203–14.
Goldstone, Jack A. 2021. “Dating the Great Divergence.” Journal of Global History 16(2): 266–85.
Hatcher, John, and Judy Z. Stephenson, eds. 2019. Seven Centuries of Unreal Wages: The Unreliable Data, Sources and Methods That Have Been Used for Measuring Standards of Living in the Past. 1st ed. 2018 edition. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
There's also a methodological question of reciprocity that scholars have raised about these data; like why does it make sense to compare England to all of China, instead of just the Yangzi Delta. Pomeranz asks this question, but you also get it in these sources:
Pomeranz, Kenneth. 2021 [2000]. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton University Press.
Austin, Gareth. 2007. “Reciprocal Comparison and African History: Tackling Conceptual Eurocentrism in the Study of Africa’s Economic Past.” African Studies Review 50(3): 1–28.
O’Brien, Patrick Karl. 2020. The Economies of Imperial China and Western Europe: Debating the Great Divergence. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Direction for future research
There are still people doing work on the great divergence as a whole, but the future I think is going to be more studies of 'south-south' and 'north-north' divergences as well as a shift to more recent economic history (see Baldwin on IT). Here are some examples of that:
Álvarez‐Nogal, Carlos, and Leandro Prados De La Escosura. 2013. “The Rise and Fall of Spain (1270–1850)1.” The Economic History Review 66(1): 1–37.
Andersson, Martin, and Tobias Axelsson. 2016. Diverse Development Paths and Structural Transformation in the Escape from Poverty. Oxford University Press.
Mahoney, James. 2010. Colonialism and Postcolonial Development: Spanish America in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Baldwin, Richard. 2019. The Great Convergence: Information Technology and the New Globalization. Harvard University Press.
Frankema, Ewout. “From the Great Divergence to South–South Divergence: New Comparative Horizons in Global Economic History.” Journal of Economic Surveys.
Scheidel, Walter. 2007. “From the’Great Convergence’to the’First Great Divergence’: Roman and Qin-Han State Formation and Its Aftermath.” Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics.
Frankema, Ewout, and Anne Booth. 2020. Fiscal Capacity and the Colonial State in Asia and Africa, c. 1850-1960. Cambridge University Press.
Li, Bozhong, and Jan Luiten van Zanden. 2012. “Before the Great Divergence? Comparing the Yangzi Delta and the Netherlands at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century.” The Journal of Economic History 72(4): 956–89.
Lieberman, Evan S. 2003. Race and Regionalism in the Politics of Taxation in Brazil and South Africa. Cambridge University Press.
Otsuka, Keijiro, Jonna P. Estudillo, and Yasuyuki Sawada. 2008. Rural Poverty and Income Dynamics in Asia and Africa. Routledge.
pseudoerasmus. 2014. “State Capacity & the Sino-Japanese Divergence.” pseudoerasmus.